What Is a Two-Way Table of Categorical Variables

One of the goals of statistics is to arrange data in a meaningful way.   Two-way tables are an important way to organized a particular type of paired data.   As with the construction of any graphs or table in statistics, it is very important to know the types of variables that we are working with. If we have quantitative data, then a graph such as a histogram or stem and leaf plot should be used. If we have categorical data, then a bar graph or pie chart is appropriate. When working with paired data we must be careful. A scatterplot exists for paired quantitative data, but what kind of graph is there for paired categorical data? Whenever we have two categorical variables, then we should use a two-way table. Description of a Two-Way Table First, we recall that categorical data relates to traits or to categories.   It is not quantitative and does not have numerical values.   A two-way table involves listing all of the values or levels for two categorical variables. All of the values for one of the variables are listed in a vertical column. The values for the other variable are listed along a horizontal row. If the first variable has m values and the second variable has n values, then there will be a total of mn entries in the table. Each of these entries corresponds to a particular value for each of the two variables. Along each row and along each column, the entries are totaled. These totals are important when determining marginal and conditional distributions.   These totals are also important when we conduct a chi-square test for independence. Example of a Two-Way Table For example, we will consider a situation in which we look at several sections of a statistics course at a university. We want to construct a two-way table to determine what differences, if any, there are between the males and females in the course. To achieve this, we count the number of each letter grade that was earned by members of each gender. We note that the first categorical variable is that of gender, and there are two possible values in the study of male and female. The second categorical variable is that of letter grade, and there are five values that are given by A, B, C, D and F. This means that we will have a two-way table with 2 x 5 10 entries, plus an additional row and an additional column that will be needed to tabulate the row and column totals. Our investigation shows that: 50 males earned an A, while 60 females earned an A.60 males earned a B, and 80 females earned a B.100 males earned a C, and 50 females earned a C.40 males earned D, and 50 females earned a D.30 males earned an F, and 20 females earned an F. This information is entered into the two-way table below. The total of each row tells us how many of each kind of grade was earned. The column totals tell us the number of males and the number of females. Importance of Two-Way Tables Two-way tables help to organize our data when we have two categorical variables. This table can be used to help us compare between two different groups in our data. For example, we could consider the relative performance of males in the statistics course against the performance of females in the course. Next Steps After forming a two-way table, the next step may be to analyze the data statistically.   We may ask if the variables that are in the study are independent of one another or not.   To answer this question we can use a chi-square test on the two-way table. Two-Way Table for Grades and Genders Male Female Total A 50 60 110 B 60 80 140 C 100 50 150 D 40 50 90 F 30 20 50 Total 280 260 540

Summary and Critique of The Timelessness of Nursing Theory

Annotated Bibliography of Two Nursing Articles Summary and critique of The timelessness of nursing theory by Sandra Schmidt Bunkers. This article by Bunkers examines the ways in which nursing theory as articulated by Florence Nightingale and supported by Rosemarie Parses theoretical modeling can be understood as being timeless and to what extent it should be considered as rooted in a particular historical moment and cultural context. Bunkers draws on both her academic and professional expertise in writing this article. Bunkers holds an RN as well as a PhD and is a Fellow of the American Academy of Nursing, serves as a professor and Graduate Department Head at South Dakota State University. Bunkers argues that Nightingales model is more universal than it has lately been considered to be: Poststructuralist and postmodernist theories have prompted reconsideration of a range of theories and practices such as Nightingales model of nursing to determine how generally appropriate such models are. Nightingales models of nursing have received significant criticism in the different of eras that have transpired within the realm of nursing since her work on the battlefields of the Crimean War. Nightingales dismissal of the opinions of her female contemporaries who fought so hard for gender equality are one of the reasons that her model of nursing has been called into question: Bunkers notes that Nightingales philosophy of nursing can be seen as arising from her personal

A Country Doctor A Story By Franz Kafka History Essay Free Essays

/A state physician is a narrative by Franz Kafka implying challenges and defeats a state physician had to confront in an effort to salvage the wellness of a patient stat mis off.He starts out on a journey to procure the wellness of an indisposed patient but it was n’t a smooth seafaring.He had to lift above every challenge that came his manner. We will write a custom essay sample on A Country Doctor A Story By Franz Kafka History Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The physician was ready for his journey that seemed long and boring, and in his company was a pretty miss ( his retainer miss ) with whom they had to go.The physician had to get in clip at his finish at least to salvage the state of affairs at manus but the ways and agencies of making his finish proved futile. His ain Equus caballus had died the old dark, and the servant miss had to run all round the small town availing all the resources but all was in vain. No 1 in the small town was willing to impart a Equus caballus at that clip of the twenty-four hours and for such a long and boring journey.The physician was frustrated at the bend of events, he merely stood at that place open, gazing in to the empty infinite unable to travel as snow gathered upon him doing him weak.He did n’t give up yet for he knew ever there would be light at the terminal of the tunnel.The servant miss ( Rose ) was there standing at the gateway beckoning a lantern.He strode through the tribunal pace once more, but he could n’t see any manner out of the tribunal ; in defeat and confusion he kicked at the elderly door of the pigpen and the door opened broad.A crisp odor of Equus caballuss me the physicians nose.A dim stable lantern swang from a rope in the room.A adult male stooping on his buttocks appeared with a curious expression on his face.He crawled out of the little room but within a split of a 2nd he was back, with two good reinforced Equus caballuss.The physician ordered the servant miss to impart a manus to the adult male and she did with harness. Everything seemed ready and everyone was ready for the long journey.The groom insisted on driving the remainder but his determination was turned down by the physician claiming the groom was a alien and they had hardly known each other, allow entirely non cognizing the terrain. A crisp statement emerged between the state physician and the groom.The groom had to retreat himself out of the journey and insisted to remain behind with physicians servant miss.What a blow to the state physician. He had to cover with this challenge and besides get down on his journey that seemed inevitable.Although the physician was frustrated but he came to believe of it.The adult male was a alien who came in to the physicians life and offered a shoulder to tilt on when everyone else had failed him. How was he to go forth behind his servant miss with the alien? The groom clapped his custodies a mark of going to the gig, and so it was, they left in a lightening velocity. The physician arrived at his patients farmyard late that dark when the Moon was high above the sky. He met a instead baffled household members whose faces glittered with hope at the sight of the state physician. The sort of response the physician received sent some message that he was late for his assignment. The whole small town had cast their hopes on the state physician to salvage their ailing boy, whose wellness seemed to acquire worse twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours, the air was stuffy although the physician went directly and examined his patient. The patient was weak and his wellness unpromising- but he wrapped his weaponries round the physician ‘s cervix, as a mark of licking by the hurting. The physician had one challenge in head, that he was to safe the wellness of the patient no affair what for the whole household had pressed trust on him. But believing of Rose and how he was to deliver her from the custodies of the alien made him ill, how could he salvage her and yet he was stat mis off? He thought he had better gone back and salvage his servant miss from the custodies of the groomed alien. The Equus caballuss looked set for the return journey but the physician had allowed the patient ‘s sister to take away his fur coat, intending he was get downing to present his services to the patient. An old adult male from he household handed over a glass of rum to the physician and patted him on the shoulder, as a mark of friendly relationship and hopes that all was traveling to be good with the patient but the physician was non amused by the act, alternatively he felt defeated and defeated. This meant the whole household expected nil less than the best from him, what a challenge it was he was the territory physician and ever delivered his services to a point he realized it was beyond the bound but still he was underpaid. Rose was still in his head non to reference of the patient who was in a serious status every bit good. His Equus caballus had died last dark but no 1 was at that place to portion his torment. He was frustrated. The size of the lesion on the right side of the physician ‘s patient and the status of the patient startled the physician, he knew the male child was non traveling to retrieve shortly or subsequently but still he had to reconstruct hopes in the faces of the male child ‘s household who stood around the patient ‘s bed this meant the physician experience that much was expected from him even though the patient ‘s position was non traveling to better the male child demanded a re-assurance from the physician that he would be good and up on his pess. The whole small town had lost religion in the physician due to the long hours he had spent on their patient and nil was forthcoming they came in great figure and stripped the physician ‘s apparels for the cheapjack work the physician had done. The physician was frustrated by this undignified act the villagers ‘ and counterpart who had ab initio lost religion and assurance in him as if this was non adequate le tdown ; the physicians made him put following to his patient stripped off. This was a challenge to he sophisticate for the physician had to lift above by happening a manner out he had to lure his patient by sweet words, words of hope that all would be good with him and shortly he would be up and about, the patient succumbed to the physician ‘s sweet words and genuinely believed he would retrieve in a fortnight holding played his cards right the physician rapidly collected his properties and off he went on a return journey where he could deliver the life of his servant girl- Rose- from the custodies of a groom alien The whole narrative state physician might be considered a incubus for a figure of grounds ; before he embarks on his journey, the state physician had to cover with quite a figure of challenges that came his manner. His Equus caballus had died the old dark and the villagers were non willing to take him any of although the servant miss had gone round the small town looking for one in vain this seemed to be a nightmare owing to the fact that his journey demanded pressing handiness of resources, when the physicians looks like he is saved by the groom who willingly gives him a brace of Equus caballuss still much is expected from the physician by the groom i.e. He had to give out his servant miss to the groom for the good workss he had done, traveling his journey without his servant miss was more of a incubus to the physician.The incident at the patients farmyard remained a incubus to the physician. Subject of treachery is good brought out by Frank Kafka.The groom betrays the physician by worsening to attach to him in his journey stat mis off and alternatively remained behind with the physicians servant girl.Although he had helped the physician out of his quandaries but treachery was n’t a good thing from him.On the other manus the physician seems to be frustrated by being misused by the territory, he is ill paid but expected to put to death his services to a point where he feels its beyond bound. Franz Kafka ridicules the manner relationships are handled in the society, the groom, although he was a alien, he had a clean bosom that saw the physician embark on his journey stat mis off. He plays the nice cat and finally saves the physician.Franz Kafka compares this virtuousness to the undignified character of the villagers.They are so average and excessively demanding ; they expect a batch from the physician yet no 1 was willing to impart a Equus caballus to the physician when he needed 1. This suggests that relationship strings are loose and everyone is separated from the other, there should be a cohesive relationship within the people that stay together. Depriving the physician off his clothe by the villagers is a symbol of discourtesy from the villagers led by the small town elders.Elders of the small town should be on the fore-front in seeking to learn good ethical motives amongst the villagers ; but alternatively they lead by bad illustration.Moral decay is apparent. Poverty has taken toll of the whole small town in that territory therefore the writer brings out the subject of poorness. Other than the Equus caballuss, no other agencies of conveyance was available for the state physician. He spends a batch of clip availing assorted resources and ends up defeated, he reached his finish safely, thanks to the groom for his kindness.The sort of life style experienced in the small town by the physician is a cogent evidence of poorness the ill room was airless and a danger to the patient.The physician had lost religion in his ain profession by stating he had delivered more than plenty of his services but he was ill paid, this means that he barely met his basic demands. Although the writer concentrated strictly on the subject of treachery but besides had some facets of the subject of rousing.The villagers looked barbarian and lack basic instruction, when the physician nods his caput as a mark of licking, no 1 amongst the villagers could read the marks or state either, if they had known the marks the better.They did n’t give the physician ample clip to analyze the patient but alternatively went a caput and humiliated the physician in forepart of the whole small town ; had they known to be patient and take affairs with wisdom and non bitterness. Last the writer brings out misrepresentation as a subject that runs through the narrative. He ( the physician ) is deceived by the groom who subsequently took over his servant miss. The physician besides uses misrepresentation to salvage his ain life from the custodies of the wicked villagers. He deceives his patient and got his manner out of the small town.He besides goes a caput and deceives the whole small town that he could mend the patient although he knew it was a difficult nut to check. How to cite A Country Doctor A Story By Franz Kafka History Essay, Essay examples

Social Policy Homelessness and Domestic Violence

Question: Discuss about the Social Policy for Homelessness and Domestic Violence. Answer: Introduction: The Australian social policies in the context like homelessness, domestic violence, drug treatment, youth suicide and so on are certain major areas of public policy debate. This write-up would explore one of such existing social policies, namely Ice Action Policy, its implications, policy process, the impact on service users and change for recommendations by using social policy literature. Description of the policy The effort to deal with illicit drugs in the Australia has been a major policy concern during the last century and described as a major policy challenge in the present era. Despite of the presence and implementations of policy activities in order to eliminate, prevent drug-associated harms, control drug availability, extensive use of psychoactive compounds remains the same throughout the world. In Australia, Ice use is a deep concern. A statistical report presents that Ice use had been increasing since 2007. There were approximately 100,000 users in Australia in 2007 and the rate has been increased to 200,000 by 2013, which indicates a steep raise in Ice use (Taylor and Clark 2015). This has attracted the focus of the Governments and respective authoritative bodies that urged them to take necessary actions against this serious problem. Therefore, the Government, in the year 2015 has established National Ice Taskforce, who takes action and reports to deal with the increasing use of Ic e in Australia. It is a synthetic compound, which is locally produced and imported and gradually became difficult to interrupt the supply. Due to affordable price, Ice is available and accessible to a greater extent. The aim of the Ice Action Policy is to diminish the rate of Ice use and associated harms throughout Australian communities (Maxwell 2015). The strategy comprises obtainable actions, which further support the governments, communities and the service providers to work in a collaborative way in order to reduce Ice use, associated harms and supply in Australia. The Commonwealth Government provides additional financial support for this program that has further reinforced the reaction to Ice application. During 1990s, the development of drug policy, especially on Heroine use, was equally in the focus of policy makers, researchers and politicians. Later, the Prime Minister Howard structured a new and federal strategy Tough on Drugs. This was a zero tolerance policy throughout his tenure and demonstrated his effort on harm minimization in the context of drug abuse (Chalmers, Lancaster and Hughes 2016). Australian media devoted major attention towards ice epidemic, as it is more destructive compare to the other drugs in Australia and the abrupt emergence left the governments and health services unprepared to deal with the Ice chaos. These incidences show the materialization of methamphetamine use as a major policy issue in Australia. Presently, the Australian government is providing almost $ 299 million in order to take measures to diminish the effects of drug abuse on the families, individuals and communities. Such funding would reinforce treatment, prevention, education along with community engagement (Health.gov.au 2016). Almost $242 million fund was provided to the primary health networks to meet local needs, concentrate on culturally competent mainstream services and also for the indigenous population. Critical assessment of the policy process It is mentioned by Lancaster and Ritter (2014) that based on the advice from Victorian legal and health experts, Daniel Andrews, the Victorian Prime minister viz. the Labour government will take a step to eradicate demand, supply and drug related harms that are ruining millions of Australians lives. In 2015, Andrews released an action plan, which was developed by his task force and delivered within the initial 100days of the formation of the government (Ransley et al. 2011). Considering the plan, Andrews government invested almost $5 million in order to support families to recognize and deal with Ice users and approximately $1 million was invested to support the lead workers, who are at the possibility of getting affected at work. The Labour government also invested almost $18million to support rehabilitation and drug treatment, so that, the users could get the required support they needed and also structured Ice Help Line, which directs the health professionals and families to suppo rt their needs. New measures were also taken to diminish the supply of the crystallized methamphetamine on the streets of Australia that comprised almost $5millon plan. The aim of these measures was to attack stealthy drug labs and implement tough actions to stop the manufacturers and dealers. Community safety was the priority of the Andrews government and thereby supported the community groups by providing almost $500,000to deal with Ice use within the local areas. Not only that, the government introduced new prospects for the young population, which comprised funds for TAFE Rescue fund and Back to work plan. The action plan developed in Victoria identified a major increase in the rate of Ice users, who were at their 20s. The Australian Greens are developed based on four major principles, which include grassroots democracy, ecological sustainability, non-violence, peace and social justice. Thus, controlling use of illicit drugs is one of their major goals. This also indicates that the Greens do not support the legalisation of illegal drugs. According to this party, the individuals, who are using illicit substances, should not be judged with criminal framework. However, they support continuance of penalties for the drug dealers and implementation of an effective system for civil sanction regarding private use of illicit substances while being aloof from other crimes that include actions like treatment, counselling and education than penalties. The Green party also mentioned about the availability of increased change to treatment, recovery and rehabilitation programs as an alternative for the individuals convicted of offense in order to support addiction towards illicit substances (AADANT 2016). This pa rty has majorly focused on developing communication between the local communities and relevant agencies in order to address issues related with illicit drugs. It is evident that the Liberal government established Australian Border Force to integrate and streamline agencies to offer better protection and maintain security and safety in Australia. The Border Force in association with the Federal Police combat the border associated crime, seize drug transactions like Iceand thereby, target the security threats (Liberal Party of Australia 2016). Different point of views exists in the context of reducing Ice use, as the major concern is that the young population do believe that it is easy to get drugs. This indicates a need to developstrategy to deal with Ice by closing the major supply of such substances, as no supply would give rise to zero drug usage. Toughest action should be taken at the dealer and manufacturing level, which requires accurate policing ad tougher penalties. This pinp oints much stronger approach to eradicate supply. Majority believe that a stoppage in supply could not be won and hence, people would be at the safe side if they purchase drugs from the regulated sources, though, it is not supported by a major group of people. The Victorian Alcohol and Drug Association (VAADA) is a major body represent alcohol and drug (AOD) related services and offers advocacy, representation, leadership and information to non-AOD and AOD-sectors(Vaada, 2016). Its goal is to take care of complications individuals are experiencing due to drug and alcohol use and the other supportive organizations, which are represented well in program and policy development along with public discussion. Minimisation of harm has been one of the major principles reinforcing successive drug strategies. VAADA believed that an effective national framework always serve the community. Majority of the VAADA members provided feedback for broad support,more awareness of intrinsic tensions and more focus towards internal inconsistency between demand, supply and strategies associated with harm reduction. Simultaneously, VAADA did not agree about the necessity to strengthen abstinence-related interventions. Besides Ice, Cannabis, LSD, Mephedrone, PMA and so on are certain drugs that are not legalised in Australia. State and Federal laws give punishments for using, processing and selling or making these drugs. Australian Drug laws distinguish between the drug suppliers and drug users. The National Customs Act includes the significance of drugs. Individual states have its individual laws that monitor the possession, manufacture, and drug use, distribution of both illegal and legal drugs. The DPCSA or Drug, Poisons and Controlled Substances Act comprises major drug offences like Use, which refers to inhaling and smoking of fumes and thereby introducing drug dependence into an individuals system. Possession refers to having custody of a substance. Anyone with such possession needs to be authorized by the court. Trafficking is a serious offense that includes developing drug dependence, manufacturing, exchanging and selling. At a commercial level, penalties are highly applicable. With funding support from the New South Wales, the Alcohol and Drug Foundation provide community education for eradicating the use of Ice in this region. The support process includes telling real stories about Ice and providing interactive and factual information so that some differences could be made. The system works in association with the researchers and policy makers in non-government and government organizations in order to inform their decision-making and policy. It advocates changes through mobi lizing and informing major audiences. It analyses policy initiatives prior implementation in association with particular communities and other stakeholders. The National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre provided some noteworthy figure that attracted the focus of the government officials and media towards the rapid use of Ice in Australia. It showed that since 2010death due to Ice use has been increased. The rate of Ice drug users has raised by almost 52%. Injectable drug users also use Ice and the frequency of usage was also increased from fortnightly to weekly. The territory, state and national law makers intervention led to arrests and seizures. Policy initiatives like mass media campaigning have reduced domestic demand for this drug (Quinn 2016). However, no noticeable evidence is present that shows the reduced supply or demand of Ice in Australia. Considering the rate of Ice use, the work of the National Task force emerged to be difficult. According to the Task Force members, disrupting the substance use system requires more effort than simply put the dealers in jail or recommending users for rehabilitation. Nevertheless, it could al so be mentioned that by just focusing on strategies for balancing treatment, arrests, family support, rehabilitation and education would not be fruitful on its own. It requires strategic focus on diminishing harm through demand and supply reduction. Impacts of Ice action plan Successful implementation of the initiatives would generate positive economic and social return on investments. This comprises significant developments to the health and well being of the service users via constant reduction of Ice use and saving to the government and diversion from the criminal detention. This action plan linked many Australian families to relevant and required support programs like family drug support. This has provided a chance to the youth population to access rehabilitation and also allows the families to access required respite care and post-care help that would further help them to develop family cohesion (Fitzgerald 2015). This plan has successfully made the government understand the fact that more investment is necessary for the family support services as these are beleaguered with contract from distraught and concerned family members. The action plan enabled to recognize families, who need more education and information regarding the effects of Ice usage an d treatments available as these families struggle hard to make a decision how to help. This is especially true, where there is an inadequacy in a referral from the emergency services and the users were sent home. Sometimes it is seen that the family members of the young users are also involved in drug abuse, Ice action plan enables to help not only the young users but also their family members and customize care for the individuals, which further indicates holistic focus on the users. This further shows that rehabilitation cannot fit for all and also, rehabilitation may require more than years, where the service users fail to cope up with the time frame. Thus, the Ice action plan strengthens positive association among the users within the Australian community (Manderson 2013). The plan also pinpoints that the government efforts to deal with Ice use should majorly concentrate on early intervention and education, wherever feasible and targets the existing user population for whom posi tive opportunities depend upon the availability of rehabilitation and detoxification facilities. It is also seen that lack of detoxification facilities, especially for the young population remains significant obstruction to effective treatment and interventions. Considering this, the task force mentioned that individual users, who are willing to be motivated and seeking change, proper rehabilitation facilities and detoxification should be available in order to maximize a fine gap of opportunity. Detoxification facilities for the youth under 16years of age should be targeted as vulnerable adolescents, which also include people from juvenile justice system. As per the plan, the governments at various levels need to provide support to the vulnerable people and play a strong role in supporting recovery. The plan enabled to introduce efforts in order to promote awareness and research, which further facilitated better workforce development in dealing with complex requirements of the Ice u sers. As the action plan aims to shut the supply of the drug by the manufacturers and dealers, there is a chance that they find other ways to continue their trade, which in turn could affect the health and wellbeing of the society. For instance, these manufacturers could establish association with pharmaceutical organizations and modify certain formulations, which are actually not legal drugs. Also, they could continue trading the drugs by tourists or cattle. This further supports the strengthening of eligibility criteria in schemes associate with Maritime and Aviation Security Identification Card in order to target organized and serious crimes (Chalmers, Lancaster and Hughes 2016). So, a loophole in the authoritative division could destruct the effectiveness of entire anti-discrimination action plan. As per a report, Shepparton, a city in Victoria, yet to receive direct benefits from the action plan. But, the government states that support is delivered equally to all the regions in Australia. It is evident that almost $58 million investment was done for mental health facility in Grampian, but not in the regional areas (Ransley et al. 2013). The policy strengthened internationalised cooperation by structuring innovative supply destruction strategies. There is a strong appeal in the present policy for Ice strategy in order to accept system methodology so that the responsible task force could solve the Ice problem. This methodology requires that the reactions to be in multi layer system, redundant, with higher cooperation. Thus, the risk of Ice could be mitigated. Quinn (2016) in this context has mentioned that disruption approach may deliver highly organized system. Successful implementation and monitoring could enable the task force to achieve better control on equipments and chemicals used to manufacture Ice. The task force carries out dealer campaign and encourage community to report on drug distribution and manufacture, whenever and wherever identified. The task force conduct national review on drug programs that inform about options and practice approaches within the existing setup. The action plan also ensure the fact that the treatment and support for the Ice users are in place, prior and after they depart custody, which further eliminate the feeling of homelessness and re-initiate the habit of drug use and offensive behaviour. Public awareness and mass media campaigns are common tools applied by the governments in order to inform public about harms related to illegal drugs. However, a report demonstrated that media campaigns have no effect on illicit drug use and behavior (Maxwell 2015). Recommendations The effects that Ice uses have on individuals and communities, affecting Australia and the entire world to a greater extent. So, it could be stated that the core reality of Ice epidemic is not only relying on Ice usage. Aiming to target ice use is politically constructive, but might hinder the design of plans, which are on the verge of having better threat reduction value. The strategy development to reduce Ice use would comprise various complicated processes and initiatives along with multifaceted interactions. The chance of success could be wiry (Hamilton and Dunlop 2016). From the discussion, it could be easily stated that there would not be any simple solution for the policy makers, who are trying hard to eradicate Ice epidemic. Hence, further policy responses need to be reinforced by proper guidance and experience from the past that should consider addressing three major areas like disruption, innovation and integration. Whatever tactic is applied, its core ideology needs to be the development of single strategy, which does not merely bridge cross-functional and multiple ingenuities rather create integrated initiatives (Rogerson 2015). It is an accurate time for the policy makers to reconsider policy lessons and strategies from heroine epidemic occurred during 1990. Hence, the policy makers accountable for strategy development need to consider the significance of the incorporation of demand, supply and eradication policies during the development. Australia has its strongest association with the Chinese authority, thereby, productive association also exists between Chinese border security and Australian Department of immigration and border protection. This association could be strengthened to strictly scrutinize and restrict the transport of illicit drugs through the border, which further requires substantial resource and time investments. Reinforcing such strategy also requires respective governments to regularly monitor the footprint and size of their global activities (governmental surveillance system). Disruption in the drug supply process requires more engagement and collaborative working with the enforcement officials. It might not develop accordingly, if the anti-Ice activities are not merged in a succinct nationalized drug supply diminition strategy, which would further support current national investment (Werb 2013). So, to reduce the supply and related precursors from abroad countries, the following steps could be re commended: Need for nationalized disruption strategy, which coordinates the national, trade, diplomatic, police, trade, border security exertions in Australia in order to decrease Ice (drug) supply coming from abroad countries like China, as it is thought to be significant home country for substances like ice and related precursors. This recommendation is based on unsettling the marketplace at the root of origin. Supportive strategies with other countries like Chinese authorities are necessary that would restrict the digression of predecessors from the legitimate economy of these countries are also necessary. Probable strategic and operational impacts of the application of death penalty should also be explored. New Justice Research centre could be established in order to provide coordinated nationalized law enforcement and clear picture on illicit drug markets. Need to implement and develop worldwide End User Declaration System. Development of pilot infrastructure to inform the development of criminal intelligence system. As a disruption approach may reduce a highly structured approach unnecessarily, a thorough evaluation of the harmful effects associated with Ice and dynamics are fundamental to the implementation of disruption strategies, which further necessitates monitoring through different point of views. From the above discussion, it could be mentioned that illicit drugs, irrespective of their types are major social issues and inextricably associated with socio-economic factors. Various drug policies are in place, however, not all are adequate and the respective authoritative bodies are not obtaining the best returns of their investments. The reasons being lack of proof on which to structure policies, evidence is not always analyzed and considered in policy related decision-making, inadequate models to support policy makers to develop good ideas to deal with drug issues and finally, the drug policy is highly debatable in politicized arena. The thorough analysis of the Ice action policy provides a valuable insight on present strategies, ideas, interventions within Australia that further enable the country to respond with success and readiness to illegitimate drug use. References AADANT. (2016).Greens Policies: Drugs, Substance Abuse, Addiction. [online] Available at: https://aadant.org.au/greens-policies-drugs-substance-abuse-addiction/ [Accessed 15 Nov. 2016]. Chalmers, J., Lancaster, K. and Hughes, C., 2016. The stigmatisation of iceand under-reporting of meth/amphetamine use in general population surveys: A case study from Australia.International Journal of Drug Policy. Fitzgerald, J., 2015.Framing drug use: Bodies, space, economy and crime. Springer. Hamilton, M. and Dunlop, A.J., 2016. " Ice"(crystal methamphetamine): concerns and responses.The Medical journal of Australia,204(4), pp.136-137. Health.gov.au. (2016).Department of Health | Government response to the Final Report of the National Ice Action Taskforce. [online] Available at: https://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/MC15-009596-national-ice-taskforce [Accessed 15 Nov. 2016]. Lancaster, K. and Ritter, A., 2014. Examining the construction and representation of drugs as a policy problem in Australia's National Drug Strategy documents 19852010.International Journal of Drug Policy,25(1), pp.81-87. Liberal Party of Australia. (2016).Protecting Our Borders. [online] Available at: https://www.liberal.org.au/our-plan/protecting-our-borders [Accessed 15 Nov. 2016]. Manderson, D.R., 2013. From Zero Tolerance to Harm Reduction:The Asylum Problem Problem.Refugee Survey Quarterly, p.hdt019. Maxwell, R., 2015. Calls for more action to address the rise of ice: Focus on targeting.Guardian (Sydney), (1693), p.4. Quinn, B., 2016. Dealing with reality: Methamphetamine: Use, related harms and responses in Australia.AJP: The Australian Journal of Pharmacy,97(1149), p.83. Ransley, J., Mazerolle, L., Manning, M., McGuffog, I., Drew, J.M. and Webster, J., 2011. Reducing the methamphetamine problem in Australia: Evaluating innovative partnerships between police, pharmacies and other third parties. Rogerson, J., 2015. Response to reducing alcohol and other drug impacts in queensland discussion paper. Taylor, A. and Clark, A., 2015. The 2015 regional engagement strategy report.Parity,28(9), p.98. Vaada. (2016). Reports Archives - Vaada. [online] Available at: https://www.vaada.org.au/publication-cat/reports/ [Accessed 15 Nov. 2016]. Werb, D., Kerr, T., Nosyk, B., Strathdee, S., Montaner, J. and Wood, E., 2013. The temporal relationship between drug supply indicators: an audit of international government surveillance systems.BMJ open,3(9), p.e003077.

Unix (1679 words) Essay Example For Students

Unix (1679 words) Essay Unix?UNIX was the first operating system designed to run on ?dissimilar computers by converting most hardware specific commands in machine language into an independent programming language called ?C,? Jon Wolfe writes in the Nashville Business Journal. (Wolfe 29) UNIX was the basis of ATTs telephone system and the governments wide area network system. Then it became the basis of communication between engineers and scientists, and eventually the basis of communication for everyone worldwide (World Wide Web (Web)). It has held this remarkable spot since 1969. However, in the 1990s there are competitors in the market, namely, Microsoft Corporation with its Windows NT product. But UNIX-based software suppliers are not just turning over and letting the competitors win. UNIX supporters are many, and UNIX remains, and will remain a major player in the marketplace. We will write a custom essay on Unix (1679 words) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now The unique advantage of the UNIX operating system when it was introduced was that it could (and still does) run on dissimilar machines, unheard of prior to 1969. UNIX also can run more than one program at a time, store complex graphics and databases, and link to other UNIX and mainframe computer systems, including DOS since the late 1980s. UNIX-based systems control various programs written by many companies to distribute information between multiple computers within the network. This minimizes user costs and eliminates system-wide hardware crashes. Some of the original UNIX programs are ?still evident today.? (Wolfe 29)UNIX was developed at ATT in 1969, primarily for controlling the phone network and handling government communications. Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Sun Systems, other U.S. companies and international companies now sell versions of UNIX that work best on their computers. UNIX at first worked over ARPnet, ?named after its sponsor from the Pentagon.? (Sembawang 1997). The ARPA network grew throughout the 1970s when computer networks from various organizations, both nationally and internationally, began to link to ARPAnet, mostly for transferring engineering and scientific research data. ?With the advent of satellite transmissions, the first international network connection was made with the University of London (England) and the Royal Radar Establishment of Norway in 1973.? (Sembawang 1997) In 1979, the National Science Foundation established the Computer Science Research Network (CSnet), which connected to ARPAnet through a gateway. This system was used for e-mail and sharing technical information. (Sembawang 1997)In the early 1980s, the NSF created its own network, NSFnet, which added educational links for schools and libraries. However, access to NSFnet was limited to these government or government research organizations. (Sembawang 1997)In 1992, NSF created Advanced Network and Services, Inc. (ANS), used to manage the NSFnet, which opened up the Inter net to everyone. ANS also opened up the potential for multimedia on the Internet through the World Wide Web. (Sembawang 1997)Once the potential was there, the European Laboratory for Particle Physics (CERN) began a project to create the international internet. The CERN project operated on TCP/IP transfer protocols developed inside a Berkeley UNIX system. The project was started in the mid-1980s and completed in 1990. By 1993, the internet had become a world-wide phenomenon. (Segal 1995)The Web allows users to easily browse through hypertext and multimedia located on various computers and main frame systems around the world. Prior to the CERN project, internet users had to know UNIX programming language and move around in a cumbersome UNIX shell environment. (Segal 1995)The Web can best be described as a ?global interactive, dynamic, cross-platform, distributed, graphical hypertext information system that operates over the internet. (Lemay 4) It operates on many protocols, including FTP, Gopher, UseNet, WAIS databases, and TELNET. Most of the text transferred over the internet is written in hypertext markup language (HTML). Graphics are transferred via standard generalized markup language (SGML) through the UNIX operating system. No one owns the web, but a consortium of U.S. and European individuals and organizations who support its operation, called the World Wide Web (W3) Consortium, established the protocols and languages that will be supported on the web. (Lemay 12). Popular browsers include Netscape, NCSA Mosaic, Lyna, MacWeb and WinWeb. A URL (home pages, BBSs, etc.) is a pointer to a posting on a Gopher, UseNet or FTP. All of these are currently transferred over the UNIX operating system. .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 , .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .postImageUrl , .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 , .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4:hover , .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4:visited , .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4:active { border:0!important; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4:active , .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4 .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u15ac136378f1ae3aa9250d97a7d1d5d4:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Shine Essay?Today, the Internet is still growing in terms of size and number of connections. It is estimated that there are now about 50 million Internet users worldwide, from as many as 100 countries.? (Sembawang 1997). UNIX has enjoyed a long, exclusive history, but Microsoft is trying to establish Windows NT as the premier Web server and replace UNIXs dominant position as the internets operating system. Although the internet was originally developed around UNIX, some companies who design software for the internet are becoming ?reluctant to embrace UNIX for this purpose.? (Harvey (74(2)) A major reason for moving to NT instead of UNIX is that the UNIX operating system is expensive, whereas Microsoft Windows NT is affordable to everyday users. (Harvey (74(2)). The other major advantage of Microsoft Windows NT is ?significantly easier to install and maintain.? (Harvey (74(2)). Also, UNIX requires additional utility software such as NetWare which is already built in to Microsoft Windows NT. (Harvey (74(2)). There are a few companies that have already switched to NT, such as Irvine, Californias Platinum Software Corp. However, they will lose 175 customers in the process who are tied into Sun Systems, which do not operate on Windows NT. ?A lot of Platinum UNIX customers are on Sun Microsystems, Inc. platforms,? Mark Lefneski, a Toronto independent consultant, said. (King 4) The cost of replacing that hardware is a strong consideration for most companies considering a switch to Microsoft Windows NT. Other users are not so quick to jump on the NT bandwagon. They believe that Microsofts BackOffice, ?which comprises the NT operating system and SQL Server database, will be less robust than the UNIX/Sybase combination.? (King 4). UNIX designers have responded to the competitive threat by upgrading software and hardware to run ?very large databases (VLDB).? (Nash 67) VLDBs can either store several hundred gigabytes or a few terabytes of data. UNIX retail companies are also reducing the price on hardware and software in combination with Informix Software, Inc. in Menlo Park, California, Oracle Corp. in Redwood Shores, California, and others. The reduced price ?makes VLDB a viable option for UNIX shops.? (Nash 67) Kim Nash, writing for Computerworld, states that UNIX still needs to develop software interfaces for planning and running even larger inventory systems. (Nash 67)TRW is working with a UNIX system that maps consumer credit histories better than current systems. TRWs system is a combined ?UNIX-based Oracle and mainframe-resident IBM DB2 databases.? (Nash 67) TRW is now using VLDBs to process transactions, whereas ?most UNIX-based VLDBs are used for data warehousing.? (Nash 67)Nash writes: ?todays craze for data warehousing the technology hula hoop of the 1990s that will result in UNIX users pushing the outer limits of database size, according to Richard Winter, an analyst at The Winter Corp., a consulting firm in Cambridge, Massachusetts.? (Nash 67) According to Winter, writes Nash, ?grocery stores, clothing chains, discounters and other consumer-oriented companies to find out why people buy what and when. ?Thats really just a series of sophisticated database queries on very large amounts of data, he said.? (Nash 67)Other enhancements enjoyed by UNIX upgrades include quicker file transfer. Jay Milne of Network Computing writes that when NFS (Network Filing System) is installed, UNIX speed is increased by placing the burden of file transfer on the UNIX serv er while program processing is still retained on individual workstations. Milne says that NFS is integrated in the UNIX operating system and is ?available on a variety of platforms, including Novell NetWare, Microsoft Windows NT, Digital VAX and IBM OS/2.? (Milne 162). UNIX systems are widely used by banking institutions and other public service industries as a means of doing business with their customers over the Internet. In one example, customers of Kansas City Power Light Co. in Kansas City, Missouri can access their accounts to determine how much electricity theyve used, and the company is experimenting with ?online bill payment.? (Wagner 59)Although the company sees security as a major concern, they find no reason to ?stay off-line.? The claim that internet security devices, such as encryption and firewalls are ?relatively safe? security devices. Mitch Wagner writing for Computerworld writes that ?Marriott and Kansas City Power ; Light shelter legacy systems from the Internet by allowing access only at ?mirror sites servers outside the firewall that contain duplicates of the data stored on internal sites. ?Its like having a lock on your door, said Ray Pasley, supervisor of network services at Kansas City Power ; Light.? (Wagner 59) Wagner wr ites, ?the risk of being off-line outweighs the risk of being online, because customers are increasingly demanding online access to data and will take their business to companies that have a dynamic online presence, Pasley said.? (Wagner 59)It is obvious that with public demand for internet services, combined with the fact that the internet is UNIX-based, there is no immediate threat to the UNIX operating system. UNIX has served many different government and scientific entities in the past and continues to be enhanced by software designers in order to better serve customers by being responsive to todays marketplace. UNIX serves, and will continue to serve the world through the Web. BibliographyWorks CitedLemay, Laura (1995). Teach Yourself Web Publishing with HTML In 14 Days. Sams.net. Indianapolis IN. .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 , .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .postImageUrl , .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 , .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17:hover , .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17:visited , .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17:active { border:0!important; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17:active , .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17 .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u5fd885637d4e4befe0f323de73677b17:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Animal cruelty EssayNash, Kim S. ?UNIX Databases Handling Larger Loads.,? Computerworld. (1995) : May, pp. 67. Segal, Ben. ?A Short History of Internet Protocols at CERN.,? CERN PDP-NS. (1995) : April. wwwcn.cern.ch/pdp/ns/ben/TCPhist.html. Sembawang Media (1997). www.cybertime.com.sg/us.html Wagner, Mitch. ?Firms: Open the store, lock the safe.,? Computerworld. (1997) : April, pp. 59. Wolfe, Jon. ?Enhancing skills takes more than a keystroke..,? Nashville Business Journal. Vol. 11. (1995) : August, pp. 29. Computers and Internet Essays

The Different Fields of Engineering

The Different Fields of Engineering Free Online Research Papers Through different interviews I have conducted, the conclusion that I have came up with is; the average person thinks that an engineer just designs buildings. There are many more things that engineers design. There are nine different disciplines within the engineering realm that work on other forms of engineering aside from designing buildings. The engineering field has many jobs within it that create and produce products that we see and use from day to day. Engineers of today are moving our society into the future and make our lives easier by creating useful products that help improve our way of life. The first field of engineering is Aerospace Engineering, which covers the â€Å"design, development, and testing of aircrafts, spacecrafts, missiles and the supervision of the manufacturing of these products.† (Engineering Majors, para.1.) The research in this field has created; the airplanes that we fly from state to state on, the space shuttle that put the first man on the moon, and missiles that we can fire from naval vessels that are located miles from the target that they are set to destroy. Where would we be if we did not have airplanes to travel from state to state or overseas? Our travel time would more than double or triple to get from one point to another. These engineers are hired in at a salary of $58, 130 per year. (Occupational, section 17-2011.) The next field of engineering is Chemical Engineering which deals with production and creation of â€Å"pharmaceuticals, pulp and paper, food processing, polymers, and environmental health.† (Engineering Majors, para. 4.) It is our Chemical Engineers that come up with inventions like; new cures for allergies, vaccines for the latest virus strands. They have also found ways to recycle our paper and plastic products so they will not clutter our streets with trash, new ways to re-create food so that we can coax our kids into eating healthy food, like string cheese, V-8 fruit drinks, and chewable, good tasting vitamins. These engineers are hired in at $53,730 per year. (Occupational, section 17-2041.) â€Å"Civil Engineers design our buildings, bridges, power plants, roads, railroads, airports, harbors, channels, dams, irrigation projects, pipelines, water and sewage, waste disposal units, and dams.† (Occupational, section 17-2051.) Civil Engineers have designed magnificent structures like the Empire State building , the Golden Gate Bridge, and power plants that provide the electricity to our houses so that we can watch our favorite television shows, cook food on our electric stoves, and take showers from our electric water heaters. They have also designed the river ways, and culverts that carry the rain water away from our homes and businesses during heavy rainfall. These engineers are hired in at a salary of $48, 140 per year. (Occupational, section 17-2051.) How do we get electricity from the power plants to our houses? That’s the jobs that our Electrical Engineers do. They design lines that move the electricity from one point to another without damaging anything. They also â€Å"helped invent the computer, DSL, cellular phones, microchips and solar panel.† (Engineering Majors, para. 8.) Where would we be if we did not have computers? There would not be any online classes, or online universities. We would still be writing letters by hand probably delivering them by hand also. Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) improved the internet by transferring information digitally, which is fifty times faster than the old analog system everyone used to have when the internet first came out. Almost every household in America has at least one or two cell phones. I depend on my phone so much that I can not leave home without it, and when I do, I feel like I am missing some clothing. These engineers are hired in at a salary of $52,990 per ye ar. (Occupational, section 17-2071.) Environmental Engineering helps keep our environment safe by studying â€Å"water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health issues.† (Engineering Majors, para. 9.) If it were not for Environmental Engineers, we would not have policies in place to protect our ozone layer, our water supply, and the amount of land we use for land fills. This policy protects our planet from manufactures producing too much air pollution from factories, by creating automobile engines that expel less pollutants in the air that break down the Earth’s ozone layer, creating new methods of keeping our water safe to drink, and producing ways to recycle plastic, water, and other goods that could clutter our land fills with more garbage. These engineers are hired in at a salary of $45,310 per year. (Occupational, section 17-2081.) Mechanical Engineers help our society by producing â€Å"machines and devices of all types.† (Engineering Majors, para. 13.) Mechanical Engineers design engines for our automobiles, planes, and ships. They design vehicles for our nation’s military that protect our borders from terrorists, farm equipment for the farmers that grow our fruits and vegetables, defense equipment for our emergency agencies, as well as security forces. They design tools for our mechanics, carpenters, masons, and wood workers so they can repair and build our houses, vehicles, and brick structures. These engineers are hired in at a salary of $47,900 per year. (Occupational, section 17-2141.) Industrial Engineering involves the process of â€Å"determining the most effective ways to use the basic factors of production.† (Engineering Majors, para. 10.) Industrial Engineers help streamline the process in which products are manufactured, and assembled. They study the process used to produce products from humans, or machines, and finds ways to improve them, and speed them up so that the process is operating as efficient as possible. If one vehicle took a month to produce, then we would probably be put on a waiting list for a year, just to get the vehicle we want. These engineers are hired in at a salary of $47,720 per year. (Occupational, section 17-2112.) Software Engineering involves â€Å"evaluation of the software and systems that enable computers to perform their many applications.† (Engineering Majors, para. 16.) They keep our networks running so that we can communicate through e-mail, and transfer files to each other. They also create programs that give us short cuts to help us get our jobs done a little faster. They write software that runs formulas to calculate formulas for us, programs that check the spelling and grammar in our writing assignments, programs that protect our homes and vehicles through security systems, and programs that update themselves at designated times of the day. These engineers are hired in at a salary of $59,170 per year. (Occupational, section 17-2061.) Biomedical Engineers â€Å"develop devices and procedures that solve medical and health-related problems by combining their knowledge of biology and medicine with engineering principles and practices.† (Occupational, section Nature of Work.) These engineers develop artificial body parts to replace missing or damaged body parts. People that have pace makers in their body, and those that have prosthetic arms, legs, or other body parts can live a more normal life because of these engineers. They also create medical equipment /devices used in medical treatment and operations. These engineers are hired in at a salary of $47,640 per year. (Occupational, section 17-2031.) Engineers have pushed our society into the future through the products that they have designed to improve our way of life. These people not only design structures, equipment, power, tools, programs, and processes, but they also design ways to save our natural resources. References Dhulipala, S. (2007, February 12.) Engineering Classified. Various Fields of Engineering. Retrieved October 12, 2009, from http://engineering.suite101.com/article.cfm/engineering_defined Engineering Majors. Retrieved October 5, 2009, from tryengineering.org/become.php?page=majors_eng Occupational Employment and Wages (May 2008.) Retrieved October 26, 2009, from bls.gov/oco/ocos027.htm What is Engineering? Retrieved October 9, 2009, from engineeringk12.org/students/What_Is_Engineering/Engineering_Alph abet/default.php Research Papers on The Different Fields of EngineeringGenetic EngineeringRiordan Manufacturing Production PlanOpen Architechture a white paperPETSTEL analysis of IndiaBionic Assembly System: A New Concept of SelfMarketing of Lifeboy Soap A Unilever ProductTwilight of the UAWMind TravelThe Effects of Illegal ImmigrationRelationship between Media Coverage and Social and

Case study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 22

Case study - Essay Example This would be an observational study. Under observational study, there are other sub-types such as case control, cohort, and cross-sectional surveys. Case control is a design that uses two groups (the case and the control) to find out the answers to the research question, for example, in this study, the case are the transgender people (Bowers 75). The aim of the study may be to find out the difference in life experiences. The control would be the normal people. Answers will then be generated from comparing the two groups. Cohort studies involve observing certain characteristics of a specified population or issue over time, for example, determining the cause of a certain disease. Cross-sectional survey is where the researcher collects specific information about a certain group of people within a specific location. This is the best study design for determining the number of people who consider themselves transgender in the United States. A survey will collect information through individual responses. The survey will have a clearly stated aim and what is expected of the respondents. It will have a statement regarding respect for personal privacy. Information received will only be used for statistical purposes and not any other. In the survey, Americans will only be expected to respond to a question about their gender. From their responses, the number of transgender people can be determined (Bowers

The Impact of the China New Labour Law on Industries and Labour Income Dissertation

The Impact of the China New Labour Law on Industries and Labour Income - Dissertation Example Some of the famous labour scholars such as Professor Chang Kai, Professor Wong Liu, lawyer Jiang Jun Lu publicly argued that the fixed term contract regulations contained in the Labour Law are necessary for protecting workers from indiscriminate termination of employment. Economists such as; the world famous economist Professor Steven N.S. Cheung and Professor Wong Yijiang, as well as labour expert Professor Dong Baohua and Law Professor Ho Bing, argued that welfare protection compromises enterprise protection and the ability of employees to be mobile (Blanpain and Nakakubo 2010, 66). The financial crisis did not help matters. Faced with struggling to keep businesses afloat and the prospect of liability for increased employee security under China’s New Labour Law, a number of businesses reportedly closed their doors. Other companies reportedly liquidated their assets to avoid compensatory damages against employee claims under the new law (Canaves 2009, A6). This research study conducts a critical analysis of China’s New Labour Law 2008 and its consequences for industries and labour income. In order to set the framework for this critical analysis, a descriptive research is conducted which reflects the economic developments in China over the past thirty years. This period is important because it covers the economic policies of Dang Xiao Ping who opened China’s markets to the rest of the world ending a long history of isolation. In the course of conducting this descriptive research, changes in the income of urban dwellers and rural farmers will be revealed. This will help to set a conceptual framework for analysing the necessity and aims of the New Labour Law and its actual and likely consequences for industries and workers’ income. This research takes a mixed methods approach in that both qualitative and quantitative research analyses are conducted. The qualitative research methods involves a review of the literature relative to Chinaà ¢â‚¬â„¢s economic development, the labour market and the implementation of China’s Labour Law 2008. The quantitative research methods consist of an empirical research study conducted. The empirical research study consist of a series of personal interviews of 100 workers and five owners of divergent sized factories. Evidence obtained from these interviews are compared to the evidence relative to empirical evidence reported in the literature on the experience of labourers who work outside of China under different jurisdictions and their labour laws. The purpose of the interviews with workers and factory owners was to identify the influence of China’s New Labour Law on the income of workers and the adjustment that businesses were compelled to make as a result of the New Labour Law. Research findings indicate that China’s New Labour Contract Law has had a substantial negative impact on the cost of manufacturing and has negative impact on the benefits intended for wo rkers. Acknowledgements. I would like to thank my tutor, Mr. Abel Khoo for his assistance. Mr. Khoo identified my errors and provided valuable advice for correcting them. He also provided valuable advice as to properly identifying the issues and the organizing the relevant material. Mr. Khoo also helped me to organize the design of this research thesis. I am also grateful to the five owners of the factories who willingly

Sources and Classifications of Law in the United Kingdom Essay

Sources and Classifications of Law in the United Kingdom - Essay Example   Legislation refers to the law, which is made by a body specially constituted for that purpose. The legislation is classified into primary and secondary legislations. Legislation in the UK derives from various sources. The Supreme legislation body for the United Kingdom is the Parliament of the UK of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, British Overseas territories and British Crown dependencies; the parliament is also referred to as the Westminster.   Each of the three major jurisdictions of the United Kingdom: Northern Ireland, English and Wales, and Scotland has its laws and legislative systems. The Westminster possesses legislative supremacy; therefore, it has ultimate power over all other political powers in the United Kingdom and its territories. Legislation in the United Kingdom takes the form of Acts or Statutory Instruments. The Acts are passed directly by Parliament while the government minister or the Queen-in-council makes Statutory Instruments under the authority of Parliament.   Primary legislation constitutes the law made by the legislative branch of the government. The primary legislation takes the form of Acts of Parliament in the United Kingdom. In primary legislation, the parliament is the law making body; this is because Parliament derives its law making powers directly from the Constitution.  Ã‚   Secondary legislation in the United Kingdom must receive the authorization from the primary legislation in order to ensure conformance to boundaries laid down by primary legislation.   Ã‚  

Factors that Shape US Energy Policy for Central Asia

Factors that Shape US Energy Policy for Central Asia Many factors influence the formulation of US energy policy. This chapter lays out the comprehensive description of the institutions which shape US energy policy towards Central Asia in general. Further this chapter would look into the international scenario, which has made US Congress, Federal Bureaucracy and Interest Groups in shaping Energy Policy towards Kazakhstan. And Turkmenistan Throughout the 1980s and before US experienced a major sorting out process, determining who would participate in energy policymaking and what the organisational arrangements for citizen involvement would be, though by 1980 the President and the Congress had been able to reach compromises on the basic issues faced by them following the onset of the energy crisis. With decisions on these basic issues the foundation for a stable national energy policy system appeared to be in place. The rudimentary energy policy system that was in place by 1980, provided the framework necessary to manage both energy supply and demand and to develop new resources (Barkenbus: 1982:413-414). Before going into the detailed focus on the role of iron triangle towards Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan in particular a brief understanding of how the policy is influenced by the Congress, Interests Groups and the Bureaucracy would be appropriate. Congress: Decision making in Congress where law is formulated, differ from decision making in the bureaucracy, where it is implemented. The institution setting greatly influences the policy outcome.[1] If not sovereign, Congress is considered to be prominent in formulating national energy policy. The president may mandate or oppose energy programs. But he is usually dictated by the Congress. It is the congress who can legislate on energy policy and raise the resources to underwrite it. The presidents freedom to act independently of congress on energy matters is limited severely by law, custom and political circumstances. Policy may be formulated by judges or administrators by interpreting or implementing a congressional enactment. But policy making by them is limited by congressional guidelines and over shift (Cowney: 1985: 82-86). Congress is characterized as house divided and authority dispersed between its two chambers. Its members are even torn by conflicting claims of local and national interest. Although congress is fragmented, it cant be denied that there is opportunity for policy innovation. From the apparent authority of the congress, it becomes clear that congress often reveals not power exercised but power dissipated, not policy made but policy paralysed(Victor:1984:313) The number of committees and subcommittees with energy as their title grew steadily from two in the 92nd Congress (1970-1972) to numerous in the110th Congress In the 96th Congress jurisdiction over some aspect of energy policy was claimed by more than 38 committees of the House of Representatives. The Senate traditionally has fewer committees than the House. Nevertheless it had at least ten major committees and several dozen subcommittees exercising some authority over energy legislation. The committees are proposed by the legislators desire to exercise some authority over major public issues. There also perpetuates jealously and competition between subcommittees and their leaders in energy policy making. Vigorous conflict over energy policy produced by each chambers over squabbling committees is intensified by rivalries between House and Senate energy committees. Such competitions are due to traditional differences between the two chambers, their divergent constituencies, constitutional responsibilities, institutional histories, conflicting personalities and committees aspirations. Moreover, the various energy committees within and between the two chambers, often respond to different energy interest (Raycraft and Kash: 1984:239-249). The fragmentation of power in the Congress is not only due to the formal division of authority among committees. There are other significant causes as well such as there are five hundred and thirty five geographical units the states and the congressional districts. These numerous factors constitute a vast array of diverse parochial interests with powerful influence in the legislative process. The Senator and the Representatives ambassador to Washington are regarded by the constituents as the guardian of the local interest. The Senator and the ambassadors are supported to play the role of energy provider and protector (Chubb: 1983:30-56). Bureaucracy: The executive branch of the federal government is a constitutional unit. Within the executive branch there are thirteen cabinet departments, fifty two independent agencies, five regulatory commissions and numerous lesser entities. More than 2.8 million employers divide their loyalties among these institutions. When closely observed, the executive branch is found to be a mosaic of disparate bureaucratic interests, each zealous to achieve its special mission. It is very challenging for the president to bring these different interests into accord with his own administrative programs. Its success depends upon his personality to a greater extent. The designs for the administrative management by the White House are continuously impeded by the political obstacles. In order to unite the bureaucracy, the president must constantly fight for the competing claims of agencies self interest, the political pressures upon the agencies from Congress and the pressure from an agencys own clientele. The federal bureaucracy is a plurality of institutional interests. They are always active in shaping the policies which will be administered by them. The bureaucracy is governments interest lobby (Chubb: 1983:30-56). Interest Group: The number of interest group striving to impress their will upon government is legion. Among one hundred thousand nationally organised interest groups in the United States, high proportions are involved in politics. When the politically active state and local groups are added to the already existing numerous interest groups, it becomes obvious that the interest groups are pervasive in the United States governmental system. They represent virtually every major social group with some claims upon government (Barkenbus: 1982:413-414). The formations of new groups are often triggered by the rise of new issues on the governmental agenda. And conversely, new issues on the agenda reflect the growing political influence of new interests. The number of interest groups in national energy policy increased significantly after 1973 oil shock. Oil companies have been the major interest groups in terms of energy policy formulation. While analysing the role of oil companies it can be said that they are playing the role of nongovernmental bodies. They have added a degree of variety to international political relationship. Sometimes they have even made the international relationships complicated which might otherwise have been quite harmonious. But in reality oil industries are primarily economic institutions. One of the characteristics of the economic actors is that so long as they can function reasonably well, they generally accept the status quo. No industry can sacrifice its profit for the sake of political principle. None of the oil industry can turn down the chance of developing important new deposits. Of course companies have to choose between possible ventures. The political climate of the countries in which these ventures fall is the only one of the factors taken into account. The political tactics available to compan ies for gaining access to promising markets are limited (Scott: 2005:12-149). The strategies adopted by the oil company are usually predictable but along with the strategies, the leadership of the company also matter to a greater extent. The underlying economics of the industry make it possible to predict the general direction in which companies will move. The development of oil companies can be stimulated by ease of access of the various oil deposit the source of existing oil production the size development and location of the worlds leading economies some facts about the motivation of the imperial powers some assumptions about the behavior of companies in an international oligopoly Some information about the level of government experience in most of the potential producing countries. The sheer size of the US market and the fact that there was a significant oil industry in existence in USA meant that American oil companies where bound to play a dominant role. As an analyst has noted that US had no history of significant engagement with the Central Asian Region before 1990s. It is the discovery of energy resources of the Caspian Sea that made the region important of the US foreign policy makers. The Central Asia and the Caspian Region is blessed with abundant oil and gases that can enhance the lives of the regions resident and provide energy for growth in both Europe and Asia. The impact of these resources on US commercial interests and US foreign policy is very significant. The United States first official foray into the Caucasus and Central Asia came in 1991 during the Bush administration. But it was not until major oil contracts were signed between US oil companies and the government of Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan in 1993-1994 that the region really began to register on the radar screen of the American public. The commercial interests of US oil companies in exploiting new energy reserves gave US policymakers a specific interest to protect in the Caucasus and Central Asia the US has come to see Caspian resources as one of the few prospects for diversifying world energy supply away from the Middle East. The role of the iron triangle in formulating US energy policy towards Central Asia can be understood by 1998 Congressional Hearing. In this hearing the subcommittee on Asia and Pacific examined the US interest in the region. It was acknowledged by the US Congress that Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan possess large reserves of oil and natural gas. It was further observed that Uzbekistan has oil and gas reserves that may make it self sufficient in energy and gain revenue through exports (Congressional Hearings: 1998). According to Mr. Bereuter the president of the Subcommittee on Asia and Pacific stated that US policy goals regarding energy resources in the region were based on the following factors- Independence of the states and their ties to the West. Breaking Russias monopoly over the oil and gas transport routes. Promoting Western energy security through diversified suppliers encouraging the construction of East West pipeline and, Isolating Iran. In addition it was stated by the then Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbot, that the United States sought to discourage any one country from gaining control over the region, but rather urged all responsible States to cooperate in the exploitation of regional oil and resources. It was noted that the Central Asian Region has emerged as one of the significant opportunities for investment opportunities for a broad range of American companies. This in turn will stimulate the economic development of the region. Debates in the Congress According to the Department of Energy, US has following interest in the region- Energy security Strategic interest and Commercial interest in promoting Caspian region energy development. It is further observed that US has an interest in strengthening global energy security through diversification, and the development of these new sources of supply. Caspian export would diversify rather than concentrate world energy supplies. This will help in avoiding the over reliance on the Persian Gulf. It was agreed in the Congress that United States has strategic interests in supporting the independence, sovereignty, and prosperity of the Newly Independent States of the Caspian Basin. And it was desired to assist the development of these States into democratic, sovereign members of the world community of the nations, enjoying unfettered access to world markets without pressure or undue influence from the region. In other words, it can be observed that the iron triangle i.e., Congress, Bureaucracy and the Interest Group have following four objectives with regard to Central Asia: Promoting Multiple Export Route-The administrations policy is centered on rapid development of the regions resources and the transportation and sale of those resources to hard currency markets to secure the independence of these new countries. The US government has promoted the development of multiple pipelines and diversified infrastructure networks to open and integrate these countries into the global market and to foster regional cooperation. It was decided to give priority to support efforts by the regional governments and the private sector to develop and improve east-west linkage and infrastructure networks through Central Asia and the Caucasus. A Eurasian energy transport corridor incorporating a trans-Caspian segment with a route from Baku, Azerbaijan, through the Caucasus and Turkey to the Mediterranean port was included. Emphasizing on Commerciality-It was realized that the massive infrastructure projects must be commercially competitive before the private sector and the international financial community can move forward. Keeping this in mind the Baku-Ceyhan pipelines was most endorsed. Cooperating with Russia-It was decided to support the continued Russian participation in Caspian participation in the Eurasian corridor was also encouraged. For this purpose US companies are working in partnership with the Russian firms in the Caspian. Isolating Iran- the US Government opposes pipelines through Iran because development of Irans oil and gas industry and pipelines from the Caspian Basin through Iran will seriously undercut the development of East-west infrastructure, and give Iran improper leverage over economies of the Caucasus and Central Asian States. Similarly, John Maresca, Vice President of International Relations, Unocal Corporation, focused on three issues with regard to Central Asia- The need for multiple pipeline routes for Central Asian oil and gas resources. The need for US support for international and Regional efforts to achieve balanced reforms and development of appropriate investment in the region. While emphasising these issues, argued for the repeal or removal of section 907 of the Freedom Support Act, because this section unfairly restricts US Government assistance to the government of Azerbaijan and limits US influence in the region. Unocal and other American companies are ready to develop cost-effective export routes for Central Asian resources. So, after this analysis of the iron triangle in terms of the Central Asian Region it can be concluded that the Cooperation of power, federalism, interest group pluralism and other checks and balances in the constitutional architecture of the United States political system created a strong bias towards bargaining, compromise and instrumentalism in energy policy making today. the electoral cycle often compels energy policy to conform to the economic and political bias of legislative constituencies charged with implementing energy policies, attempt to impose upon those policies their own bureaucratic values, their unique political per spective growing from their several missions and many other institutional concerns sub government and the public opinion also influence policy. These elements in the policy process have long been recognized. They emphasise a truth often ignored in discussions of US public policy. The United States and the rest of the world are facing energy problem. The era of abundant, reliable, low-cost energy is in the past. Currently the condition will be that of scarcity and the continuing need to manage the complex and difficult issues associated with the use, supply, pricing and trading of energy to prevent economic, political, environmental and military crisis. Imported oil is the heart of energy problem. As mentioned earlier the economic growth and the consequent growth in energy demand requires increased need for imported oil. To understand the full scope of Congressional perception focus on Energy Security act-S.932 of 1980 is essential. Energy Security Act S. 932 Representative Christopher J. Dodd on June 25, 1980 observed that with respect to the energy act it represented a long overdue commitment of federal dollars to promote energy independence for America. He acknowledged the growing dependency of United States on imported oil. The Energy Security Act provides 25 billion for exploration of a variety of energy alternatives including synthetic fuels renewable resources, conservation, and gasohol. It mandated two actions -the filling of our strategic petroleum reserves and the study of acid rain problem. Though the historical energy security act comprehensively dealt with the synthetic fuel but it was not entirely about the synthetic fuel bill. This act also provide $3.1 billion to establish conservation and solar banks that will offer federal subsidies in the form of below market loans, loan guarantees and grant to finance solar and conservation work in homes, apartments and small business. Christopher J. Dodd argued that $ 3 billion includ ed in this bill to the energy bank was not enough to release the full potential of conservation and solar energy. But this funding was perceived to be a good beginning, and believed that the experience of the coming years will prove the worth these alternatives to continue oil imports. He further argued that the United States government must devise an effective national strategy to break the hold of OPEC and energy conservation in our homes and business should be taken as a vital part of that strategy (Congressional Hearings: 1980) The former Clinton Administration stressed that U.S. support for free market reforms directly served U.S. national interests by opening new markets for U.S. goods and services, and sources of energy and minerals. U.S. private investment committed to Central Asia had greatly exceeded. U.S. energy companies have committed to invest billions of dollars in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. U.S. trade agreements have been signed and entered into force with all the Central Asian States. By focusing on Congressional debates on Energy Policy with particular focus on Central Asia, the complexity of policy formulation can be understood. Further the various Hearings held by the Congress have also provided significant evidence that explains the changed nuances of Central Asia policy. It also helps to illustrate the argument that the Congress considered the Central Asian Region very important for US interest. In particular Congressional understanding of the Enormous Energy Export Potential that could ease Americas energy problem went a long way in shaping US policy towards Central Asia. For instance, despite concern on human right violent political movement, US government virtually supported the US government decision to promote a new pipeline from Kazakh to Azerbaijan and from Ceyhan to Turkey. Some analysts have noted that there has been different emphasis on the level of US involvement in the CAR. According to some there have been linkages between the adequate progress in democratisation and improving the human rights. The importance of energy resources to US has been disputed in early phase of 1990. However, the Congressional interest in Central Asia was reflected in the passage of Silk Road in late 1999 which enhanced US policy alteration, humanitarian needs, economic development (including energy pipelines) and communications, democracy and the creation of civil societies in the South Caucasian and Central Asia. The Bush energy policy was directed towards securing cheap oil because US oil consumption was below projected to increase by one-third over the next two decades. The white House during Bush Administration also had for greater domestic drilling and wants to open the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to the oil industry. The Administrations National Energy Policy Development Group, led by Vice President Dick Cheney, acknowledged in a May 2001 report that US oil production will fall 12% over the next 20 years. As a result US dependence on imported oil which has risen to a great extent (CRS Report: 2005). September 11 brought with it a dramatic reconfiguration of the entire international security environment as well as a fundamental shift in the ranking of American foreign and security priorities. Virtually every other foreign policy priority was now subordinated to the effort to create an anti-terrorist coalition (Chenoy: 2001:149-160). It is observed that the September 11 attack on the World Trade Centre and Pentagon has underlined the connection between oil and politics. When it became confirmed that the most of the hijackers were from Saudi Arabia, it impacted on the oil market to a great extent. Since Saudi Arabia constitutes one fourth of the total petroleum reserves, United States had to look for some other alternative sources in order to fulfill its energy requirement. United States is dependent on foreign oil for its 58% of energy requirement which is likely to increase up to 65% by 2020 (Chenoy: 2001:149-160). The counterstrike of September 11 shattered the old barriers and opened new horizons. The United States Congress acknowledged the importance of the Central Asian republic for the fulfillment of its oil requirement in the 107th Congress. It was acknowledged that the Central Asian Region is inflicted with terrorist activities and hence consequently political instability. The support from the Congress and the administration was urged. It was argued that the US assistance in developing these new economics will be crucial to business success. A strong technical assistance progress throughout the region was endorsed. After September 11 Washingtons approval of more than US$1.4 billion for the economic recovery of barren and battle scarred Afghanistan provides the Bush administration with possible insurance for deepening its petro-political sphere of influence along Russias boarder in the form of revived Trans-Afghan pipeline. Further it was realized by the US energy analysts that the vast reservoir of oil and gas can be protected by the deployment of US special operations forces to Georgia because it will neutralize Russias influence in the region. It is noteworthy that the Vice president Dick Cheney, former CEO of the oil services company Halliburtons also a veteran of the American oil industrys presence in the Caspian Basin is sufficient to manifest the US presence in the region With almost $30 billion already invested by US oil companies in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan, the suggested Afghan route would cost only one-half the amount of the other alternative which would run through Georgia to Turkeys Mediterranean coast ( Alam :2002:5-26). The Caspian Sea region is widely viewed as important to world markets because of its large oil and gas reserves. Most Energy Company regards the Caspian Basin as the Persian Gulf of the 21st century. In Central Asia and elsewhere, America found new friends in hour of need. It can be said that the Sept. 11 have awakened many Americans to the interdependence to the even -smaller world, to their vulnerability especially in energy. The growing American stake in Central Asia is one response to that. It can be said that the American war against terrorism has also become a battle to control the energy resources of the Central Asian Region. Since Central Asian region can offer the United States a rare opportunity to diversify world oil supply, it could be one of the most important areas of US foreign policy. However, in Washington D.C., and especially in the US congress, foreign policy tends to be an elitist sport. Few members of the Congress focus on foreign policy and accepted by the most of the Americans. As a result, few members of the congress view foreign policy and the Caspian region in strategic terms. The Central Asian Region is viewed by the most members of the congress through one or more of the following perspectives- The Azerbaijan- Armenia issue US policy towards Iran US policy towards Russia Partition and domestic politics. Among the four factors mentioned above, the fourth one i.e. that is partition and domestic politics is perhaps the most important. Members of the Congress tend to be overly responsive to their domestic constituents and some even support certain ethnic groups as a way to raise campaign contribution. This leads to a phenomenon termed ethnic politics. Critics argued that ethnic politics have driven US policy towards both Azerbaijan and Iran (Congressional Hearing: 2001). In order to understand the attitude of Congress towards the Central Asian Region in the aftermath of Sept. 11 attack on World Trade Centre (WTC) and Pentagon, the congress role towards Azerbaijan-America issue, Iran, and Russia requires a brief consideration. The Azerbaijan-Armenia issue On the Azerbaijan Armenia issue, congress tends to favour Armenia and uses foreign aid legislation as a means of exerting pressure on Armenias neighbors particularly Azerbaijan and Turkey. The most obvious example of this is the section 907 at the Freedom Support Act which prohibits US government aid to the government of Azerbaijan. Concern over the plight of Azeri refugee and the increasing importance of United States investment in the Azeri oil sectors; have led Congress to adjust section 907 incrementally each year since it took effect in January 1993. Nevertheless, Congressional attitude towards the region began to change significantly in 1997. The changes occurred for several reasons: The presidential elections in Armenia appeared to be less than free and fare this damaged Armenias image on Capitol Hill and embarrassed lawmaker who had clouted Armenia as the democratic ideal for the region. Some members of the congress thought the Armenia lobby had gone too far and was out of step with the realities on ground. The Armenian lobby was pushing for what some members of Congress thought was excessive legislation. As the deadline for a decision on the main export pipeline route approaches Congressional interest has continued to rise. There was the increased number of Congressional delegation traveling in the region. At least five delegations visited the region in 1997 including one led by senator McConnell. However, since his trip he has taken a more balanced approach to the region. This is noteworthy because McConnell is the chairman of the Senate appropriations subcommittee on foreign operations, the subcommittee which has jurisdiction over section 907. The House of Representatives, however, continued to reject attempt to weaken section 907. Congress tends to be an incremental body and the facts demonstrate that there is momentum towards making further revisions in section 907. As a result of this increasing momentum it is believed that the US Senate is now positioned to make substantial changes in 907. Senate headway will be critical because progress will have to be made in a House-Senate c onference committee and the House of Representatives continues to be solidly on the side of Armenia and is likely to support a significant softening or repeal of S.907. A major problem especially in the House is that section 907 is not on the radar screen for most Representatives since 907 is usually inserted into the foreign operations appropriations legislation at the subcommittee level, only 13 House member-less than 3% have an opportunity to vote up or down on 907 each year (Congressional Hearing:1997). Congressional attitude towards Iran: Iran is the most stable country politically and economically bordering the Caspian, and offers the most attractive pipeline routes: it is important to understand congressional attitude towards that country. Congress is opposed to Iran and has limited the Clintons administrations flexibility in dealing with it. In this respect, Congress has played a significant role. In the opinion of Congress no country undermines American interest more than Iran. Since the Iranian revolution the United States has sought to isolate Iran diplomatically and politically and more recently economically. Congress has passed the Iran-Libya Sanction Act (ILSA). This act was passed without a single member of congress voting against the sanctions. Congress has rarely adopted any controversial piece of legislation unanimously which have a wide range of implications. This law is causing problem for the companies trying to move Caspian oil to market. US companies are prohibited from partnering with Iranian firms in the Caspian (CRS Report: 2003). US Policy towards Russia Another regional issue clouding Congress view of the region is US policy towards Russia. Congress is skeptical of Russia, and its relations with Iran. For many members of Congress opposing the Soviet Union was a major pillar in their political philosophy during 1980s. Today there are still resident effects of this cold war attitude especially Republican party. In 1997 dozens of bills were introduced seeking to impose sanctions on Russia. Congress has consistently opposed Russian efforts of nuclear cooperation with Iran. Congress views the possible pipeline alternative through Russia, southern route through Iran, eastern route through Afghanistan and western rout through Georgia and Today Congressional view of the pipeline can be summed up in three ways: congress is opposed to pipelines routes through Iran, Congress is skeptical of routes through Russia, and is dubious of routes through Afghanistan. Turkey and Georgia are the only options in view of the Congress. Therefore, it is obvious why Congress has expressed support for pipeline along an east-west axis. This also helps to explain why the US government (Congress and the administration) are increasingly calling the Baku Ceyhan route the preferred route because it belongs NATO, ally, and avoid Iran and Russia. During 1998, Congress continued to advocate isolation of Iran and continue the incremental progress in US relations with Azerbaijan. While formulating energy policy for the United States, Congress is the preeminent force. But congress is a house divided. Its authority is dispersed between the two chambers. It is due to the fact that its members are usually torn by the conflicting claims of local and national interest. In spite of having fragmented opportunity it can be expected for policy innovation. On the brighter side, the United States has important energy interests in Central Asia. With its recent energy resources, Kazakhstan could become one of the largest oil exporters in the world. The United States has a strong interest in this oil getting to the world market at reasonable prices via multiple pipelines (Congressional Hearings: 1998). The 107th Congress supported governments efforts to promote a new pipeline from Kazakhstan to Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, the gateway to the entire Western oil market. It was also acknowledged that in addition to energy interests, the United States also has a strong interest in working with the existing Central Asia governments on combating drugs and on divesting themselves of their weapons of mass destruction materials ( Congressional Hearings:2001). Finally, domestic security concerns for the Central Asian region particularly about violent political movements also got due consideration. The world gets nearly hal Factors that Shape US Energy Policy for Central Asia Factors that Shape US Energy Policy for Central Asia Many factors influence the formulation of US energy policy. This chapter lays out the comprehensive description of the institutions which shape US energy policy towards Central Asia in general. Further this chapter would look into the international scenario, which has made US Congress, Federal Bureaucracy and Interest Groups in shaping Energy Policy towards Kazakhstan. And Turkmenistan Throughout the 1980s and before US experienced a major sorting out process, determining who would participate in energy policymaking and what the organisational arrangements for citizen involvement would be, though by 1980 the President and the Congress had been able to reach compromises on the basic issues faced by them following the onset of the energy crisis. With decisions on these basic issues the foundation for a stable national energy policy system appeared to be in place. The rudimentary energy policy system that was in place by 1980, provided the framework necessary to manage both energy supply and demand and to develop new resources (Barkenbus: 1982:413-414). Before going into the detailed focus on the role of iron triangle towards Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan in particular a brief understanding of how the policy is influenced by the Congress, Interests Groups and the Bureaucracy would be appropriate. Congress: Decision making in Congress where law is formulated, differ from decision making in the bureaucracy, where it is implemented. The institution setting greatly influences the policy outcome.[1] If not sovereign, Congress is considered to be prominent in formulating national energy policy. The president may mandate or oppose energy programs. But he is usually dictated by the Congress. It is the congress who can legislate on energy policy and raise the resources to underwrite it. The presidents freedom to act independently of congress on energy matters is limited severely by law, custom and political circumstances. Policy may be formulated by judges or administrators by interpreting or implementing a congressional enactment. But policy making by them is limited by congressional guidelines and over shift (Cowney: 1985: 82-86). Congress is characterized as house divided and authority dispersed between its two chambers. Its members are even torn by conflicting claims of local and national interest. Although congress is fragmented, it cant be denied that there is opportunity for policy innovation. From the apparent authority of the congress, it becomes clear that congress often reveals not power exercised but power dissipated, not policy made but policy paralysed(Victor:1984:313) The number of committees and subcommittees with energy as their title grew steadily from two in the 92nd Congress (1970-1972) to numerous in the110th Congress In the 96th Congress jurisdiction over some aspect of energy policy was claimed by more than 38 committees of the House of Representatives. The Senate traditionally has fewer committees than the House. Nevertheless it had at least ten major committees and several dozen subcommittees exercising some authority over energy legislation. The committees are proposed by the legislators desire to exercise some authority over major public issues. There also perpetuates jealously and competition between subcommittees and their leaders in energy policy making. Vigorous conflict over energy policy produced by each chambers over squabbling committees is intensified by rivalries between House and Senate energy committees. Such competitions are due to traditional differences between the two chambers, their divergent constituencies, constitutional responsibilities, institutional histories, conflicting personalities and committees aspirations. Moreover, the various energy committees within and between the two chambers, often respond to different energy interest (Raycraft and Kash: 1984:239-249). The fragmentation of power in the Congress is not only due to the formal division of authority among committees. There are other significant causes as well such as there are five hundred and thirty five geographical units the states and the congressional districts. These numerous factors constitute a vast array of diverse parochial interests with powerful influence in the legislative process. The Senator and the Representatives ambassador to Washington are regarded by the constituents as the guardian of the local interest. The Senator and the ambassadors are supported to play the role of energy provider and protector (Chubb: 1983:30-56). Bureaucracy: The executive branch of the federal government is a constitutional unit. Within the executive branch there are thirteen cabinet departments, fifty two independent agencies, five regulatory commissions and numerous lesser entities. More than 2.8 million employers divide their loyalties among these institutions. When closely observed, the executive branch is found to be a mosaic of disparate bureaucratic interests, each zealous to achieve its special mission. It is very challenging for the president to bring these different interests into accord with his own administrative programs. Its success depends upon his personality to a greater extent. The designs for the administrative management by the White House are continuously impeded by the political obstacles. In order to unite the bureaucracy, the president must constantly fight for the competing claims of agencies self interest, the political pressures upon the agencies from Congress and the pressure from an agencys own clientele. The federal bureaucracy is a plurality of institutional interests. They are always active in shaping the policies which will be administered by them. The bureaucracy is governments interest lobby (Chubb: 1983:30-56). Interest Group: The number of interest group striving to impress their will upon government is legion. Among one hundred thousand nationally organised interest groups in the United States, high proportions are involved in politics. When the politically active state and local groups are added to the already existing numerous interest groups, it becomes obvious that the interest groups are pervasive in the United States governmental system. They represent virtually every major social group with some claims upon government (Barkenbus: 1982:413-414). The formations of new groups are often triggered by the rise of new issues on the governmental agenda. And conversely, new issues on the agenda reflect the growing political influence of new interests. The number of interest groups in national energy policy increased significantly after 1973 oil shock. Oil companies have been the major interest groups in terms of energy policy formulation. While analysing the role of oil companies it can be said that they are playing the role of nongovernmental bodies. They have added a degree of variety to international political relationship. Sometimes they have even made the international relationships complicated which might otherwise have been quite harmonious. But in reality oil industries are primarily economic institutions. One of the characteristics of the economic actors is that so long as they can function reasonably well, they generally accept the status quo. No industry can sacrifice its profit for the sake of political principle. None of the oil industry can turn down the chance of developing important new deposits. Of course companies have to choose between possible ventures. The political climate of the countries in which these ventures fall is the only one of the factors taken into account. The political tactics available to compan ies for gaining access to promising markets are limited (Scott: 2005:12-149). The strategies adopted by the oil company are usually predictable but along with the strategies, the leadership of the company also matter to a greater extent. The underlying economics of the industry make it possible to predict the general direction in which companies will move. The development of oil companies can be stimulated by ease of access of the various oil deposit the source of existing oil production the size development and location of the worlds leading economies some facts about the motivation of the imperial powers some assumptions about the behavior of companies in an international oligopoly Some information about the level of government experience in most of the potential producing countries. The sheer size of the US market and the fact that there was a significant oil industry in existence in USA meant that American oil companies where bound to play a dominant role. As an analyst has noted that US had no history of significant engagement with the Central Asian Region before 1990s. It is the discovery of energy resources of the Caspian Sea that made the region important of the US foreign policy makers. The Central Asia and the Caspian Region is blessed with abundant oil and gases that can enhance the lives of the regions resident and provide energy for growth in both Europe and Asia. The impact of these resources on US commercial interests and US foreign policy is very significant. The United States first official foray into the Caucasus and Central Asia came in 1991 during the Bush administration. But it was not until major oil contracts were signed between US oil companies and the government of Kazakhstan and Azerbaijan in 1993-1994 that the region really began to register on the radar screen of the American public. The commercial interests of US oil companies in exploiting new energy reserves gave US policymakers a specific interest to protect in the Caucasus and Central Asia the US has come to see Caspian resources as one of the few prospects for diversifying world energy supply away from the Middle East. The role of the iron triangle in formulating US energy policy towards Central Asia can be understood by 1998 Congressional Hearing. In this hearing the subcommittee on Asia and Pacific examined the US interest in the region. It was acknowledged by the US Congress that Kazakhstan and Turkmenistan possess large reserves of oil and natural gas. It was further observed that Uzbekistan has oil and gas reserves that may make it self sufficient in energy and gain revenue through exports (Congressional Hearings: 1998). According to Mr. Bereuter the president of the Subcommittee on Asia and Pacific stated that US policy goals regarding energy resources in the region were based on the following factors- Independence of the states and their ties to the West. Breaking Russias monopoly over the oil and gas transport routes. Promoting Western energy security through diversified suppliers encouraging the construction of East West pipeline and, Isolating Iran. In addition it was stated by the then Deputy Secretary of State Strobe Talbot, that the United States sought to discourage any one country from gaining control over the region, but rather urged all responsible States to cooperate in the exploitation of regional oil and resources. It was noted that the Central Asian Region has emerged as one of the significant opportunities for investment opportunities for a broad range of American companies. This in turn will stimulate the economic development of the region. Debates in the Congress According to the Department of Energy, US has following interest in the region- Energy security Strategic interest and Commercial interest in promoting Caspian region energy development. It is further observed that US has an interest in strengthening global energy security through diversification, and the development of these new sources of supply. Caspian export would diversify rather than concentrate world energy supplies. This will help in avoiding the over reliance on the Persian Gulf. It was agreed in the Congress that United States has strategic interests in supporting the independence, sovereignty, and prosperity of the Newly Independent States of the Caspian Basin. And it was desired to assist the development of these States into democratic, sovereign members of the world community of the nations, enjoying unfettered access to world markets without pressure or undue influence from the region. In other words, it can be observed that the iron triangle i.e., Congress, Bureaucracy and the Interest Group have following four objectives with regard to Central Asia: Promoting Multiple Export Route-The administrations policy is centered on rapid development of the regions resources and the transportation and sale of those resources to hard currency markets to secure the independence of these new countries. The US government has promoted the development of multiple pipelines and diversified infrastructure networks to open and integrate these countries into the global market and to foster regional cooperation. It was decided to give priority to support efforts by the regional governments and the private sector to develop and improve east-west linkage and infrastructure networks through Central Asia and the Caucasus. A Eurasian energy transport corridor incorporating a trans-Caspian segment with a route from Baku, Azerbaijan, through the Caucasus and Turkey to the Mediterranean port was included. Emphasizing on Commerciality-It was realized that the massive infrastructure projects must be commercially competitive before the private sector and the international financial community can move forward. Keeping this in mind the Baku-Ceyhan pipelines was most endorsed. Cooperating with Russia-It was decided to support the continued Russian participation in Caspian participation in the Eurasian corridor was also encouraged. For this purpose US companies are working in partnership with the Russian firms in the Caspian. Isolating Iran- the US Government opposes pipelines through Iran because development of Irans oil and gas industry and pipelines from the Caspian Basin through Iran will seriously undercut the development of East-west infrastructure, and give Iran improper leverage over economies of the Caucasus and Central Asian States. Similarly, John Maresca, Vice President of International Relations, Unocal Corporation, focused on three issues with regard to Central Asia- The need for multiple pipeline routes for Central Asian oil and gas resources. The need for US support for international and Regional efforts to achieve balanced reforms and development of appropriate investment in the region. While emphasising these issues, argued for the repeal or removal of section 907 of the Freedom Support Act, because this section unfairly restricts US Government assistance to the government of Azerbaijan and limits US influence in the region. Unocal and other American companies are ready to develop cost-effective export routes for Central Asian resources. So, after this analysis of the iron triangle in terms of the Central Asian Region it can be concluded that the Cooperation of power, federalism, interest group pluralism and other checks and balances in the constitutional architecture of the United States political system created a strong bias towards bargaining, compromise and instrumentalism in energy policy making today. the electoral cycle often compels energy policy to conform to the economic and political bias of legislative constituencies charged with implementing energy policies, attempt to impose upon those policies their own bureaucratic values, their unique political per spective growing from their several missions and many other institutional concerns sub government and the public opinion also influence policy. These elements in the policy process have long been recognized. They emphasise a truth often ignored in discussions of US public policy. The United States and the rest of the world are facing energy problem. The era of abundant, reliable, low-cost energy is in the past. Currently the condition will be that of scarcity and the continuing need to manage the complex and difficult issues associated with the use, supply, pricing and trading of energy to prevent economic, political, environmental and military crisis. Imported oil is the heart of energy problem. As mentioned earlier the economic growth and the consequent growth in energy demand requires increased need for imported oil. To understand the full scope of Congressional perception focus on Energy Security act-S.932 of 1980 is essential. Energy Security Act S. 932 Representative Christopher J. Dodd on June 25, 1980 observed that with respect to the energy act it represented a long overdue commitment of federal dollars to promote energy independence for America. He acknowledged the growing dependency of United States on imported oil. The Energy Security Act provides 25 billion for exploration of a variety of energy alternatives including synthetic fuels renewable resources, conservation, and gasohol. It mandated two actions -the filling of our strategic petroleum reserves and the study of acid rain problem. Though the historical energy security act comprehensively dealt with the synthetic fuel but it was not entirely about the synthetic fuel bill. This act also provide $3.1 billion to establish conservation and solar banks that will offer federal subsidies in the form of below market loans, loan guarantees and grant to finance solar and conservation work in homes, apartments and small business. Christopher J. Dodd argued that $ 3 billion includ ed in this bill to the energy bank was not enough to release the full potential of conservation and solar energy. But this funding was perceived to be a good beginning, and believed that the experience of the coming years will prove the worth these alternatives to continue oil imports. He further argued that the United States government must devise an effective national strategy to break the hold of OPEC and energy conservation in our homes and business should be taken as a vital part of that strategy (Congressional Hearings: 1980) The former Clinton Administration stressed that U.S. support for free market reforms directly served U.S. national interests by opening new markets for U.S. goods and services, and sources of energy and minerals. U.S. private investment committed to Central Asia had greatly exceeded. U.S. energy companies have committed to invest billions of dollars in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan. U.S. trade agreements have been signed and entered into force with all the Central Asian States. By focusing on Congressional debates on Energy Policy with particular focus on Central Asia, the complexity of policy formulation can be understood. Further the various Hearings held by the Congress have also provided significant evidence that explains the changed nuances of Central Asia policy. It also helps to illustrate the argument that the Congress considered the Central Asian Region very important for US interest. In particular Congressional understanding of the Enormous Energy Export Potential that could ease Americas energy problem went a long way in shaping US policy towards Central Asia. For instance, despite concern on human right violent political movement, US government virtually supported the US government decision to promote a new pipeline from Kazakh to Azerbaijan and from Ceyhan to Turkey. Some analysts have noted that there has been different emphasis on the level of US involvement in the CAR. According to some there have been linkages between the adequate progress in democratisation and improving the human rights. The importance of energy resources to US has been disputed in early phase of 1990. However, the Congressional interest in Central Asia was reflected in the passage of Silk Road in late 1999 which enhanced US policy alteration, humanitarian needs, economic development (including energy pipelines) and communications, democracy and the creation of civil societies in the South Caucasian and Central Asia. The Bush energy policy was directed towards securing cheap oil because US oil consumption was below projected to increase by one-third over the next two decades. The white House during Bush Administration also had for greater domestic drilling and wants to open the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge to the oil industry. The Administrations National Energy Policy Development Group, led by Vice President Dick Cheney, acknowledged in a May 2001 report that US oil production will fall 12% over the next 20 years. As a result US dependence on imported oil which has risen to a great extent (CRS Report: 2005). September 11 brought with it a dramatic reconfiguration of the entire international security environment as well as a fundamental shift in the ranking of American foreign and security priorities. Virtually every other foreign policy priority was now subordinated to the effort to create an anti-terrorist coalition (Chenoy: 2001:149-160). It is observed that the September 11 attack on the World Trade Centre and Pentagon has underlined the connection between oil and politics. When it became confirmed that the most of the hijackers were from Saudi Arabia, it impacted on the oil market to a great extent. Since Saudi Arabia constitutes one fourth of the total petroleum reserves, United States had to look for some other alternative sources in order to fulfill its energy requirement. United States is dependent on foreign oil for its 58% of energy requirement which is likely to increase up to 65% by 2020 (Chenoy: 2001:149-160). The counterstrike of September 11 shattered the old barriers and opened new horizons. The United States Congress acknowledged the importance of the Central Asian republic for the fulfillment of its oil requirement in the 107th Congress. It was acknowledged that the Central Asian Region is inflicted with terrorist activities and hence consequently political instability. The support from the Congress and the administration was urged. It was argued that the US assistance in developing these new economics will be crucial to business success. A strong technical assistance progress throughout the region was endorsed. After September 11 Washingtons approval of more than US$1.4 billion for the economic recovery of barren and battle scarred Afghanistan provides the Bush administration with possible insurance for deepening its petro-political sphere of influence along Russias boarder in the form of revived Trans-Afghan pipeline. Further it was realized by the US energy analysts that the vast reservoir of oil and gas can be protected by the deployment of US special operations forces to Georgia because it will neutralize Russias influence in the region. It is noteworthy that the Vice president Dick Cheney, former CEO of the oil services company Halliburtons also a veteran of the American oil industrys presence in the Caspian Basin is sufficient to manifest the US presence in the region With almost $30 billion already invested by US oil companies in Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan, the suggested Afghan route would cost only one-half the amount of the other alternative which would run through Georgia to Turkeys Mediterranean coast ( Alam :2002:5-26). The Caspian Sea region is widely viewed as important to world markets because of its large oil and gas reserves. Most Energy Company regards the Caspian Basin as the Persian Gulf of the 21st century. In Central Asia and elsewhere, America found new friends in hour of need. It can be said that the Sept. 11 have awakened many Americans to the interdependence to the even -smaller world, to their vulnerability especially in energy. The growing American stake in Central Asia is one response to that. It can be said that the American war against terrorism has also become a battle to control the energy resources of the Central Asian Region. Since Central Asian region can offer the United States a rare opportunity to diversify world oil supply, it could be one of the most important areas of US foreign policy. However, in Washington D.C., and especially in the US congress, foreign policy tends to be an elitist sport. Few members of the Congress focus on foreign policy and accepted by the most of the Americans. As a result, few members of the congress view foreign policy and the Caspian region in strategic terms. The Central Asian Region is viewed by the most members of the congress through one or more of the following perspectives- The Azerbaijan- Armenia issue US policy towards Iran US policy towards Russia Partition and domestic politics. Among the four factors mentioned above, the fourth one i.e. that is partition and domestic politics is perhaps the most important. Members of the Congress tend to be overly responsive to their domestic constituents and some even support certain ethnic groups as a way to raise campaign contribution. This leads to a phenomenon termed ethnic politics. Critics argued that ethnic politics have driven US policy towards both Azerbaijan and Iran (Congressional Hearing: 2001). In order to understand the attitude of Congress towards the Central Asian Region in the aftermath of Sept. 11 attack on World Trade Centre (WTC) and Pentagon, the congress role towards Azerbaijan-America issue, Iran, and Russia requires a brief consideration. The Azerbaijan-Armenia issue On the Azerbaijan Armenia issue, congress tends to favour Armenia and uses foreign aid legislation as a means of exerting pressure on Armenias neighbors particularly Azerbaijan and Turkey. The most obvious example of this is the section 907 at the Freedom Support Act which prohibits US government aid to the government of Azerbaijan. Concern over the plight of Azeri refugee and the increasing importance of United States investment in the Azeri oil sectors; have led Congress to adjust section 907 incrementally each year since it took effect in January 1993. Nevertheless, Congressional attitude towards the region began to change significantly in 1997. The changes occurred for several reasons: The presidential elections in Armenia appeared to be less than free and fare this damaged Armenias image on Capitol Hill and embarrassed lawmaker who had clouted Armenia as the democratic ideal for the region. Some members of the congress thought the Armenia lobby had gone too far and was out of step with the realities on ground. The Armenian lobby was pushing for what some members of Congress thought was excessive legislation. As the deadline for a decision on the main export pipeline route approaches Congressional interest has continued to rise. There was the increased number of Congressional delegation traveling in the region. At least five delegations visited the region in 1997 including one led by senator McConnell. However, since his trip he has taken a more balanced approach to the region. This is noteworthy because McConnell is the chairman of the Senate appropriations subcommittee on foreign operations, the subcommittee which has jurisdiction over section 907. The House of Representatives, however, continued to reject attempt to weaken section 907. Congress tends to be an incremental body and the facts demonstrate that there is momentum towards making further revisions in section 907. As a result of this increasing momentum it is believed that the US Senate is now positioned to make substantial changes in 907. Senate headway will be critical because progress will have to be made in a House-Senate c onference committee and the House of Representatives continues to be solidly on the side of Armenia and is likely to support a significant softening or repeal of S.907. A major problem especially in the House is that section 907 is not on the radar screen for most Representatives since 907 is usually inserted into the foreign operations appropriations legislation at the subcommittee level, only 13 House member-less than 3% have an opportunity to vote up or down on 907 each year (Congressional Hearing:1997). Congressional attitude towards Iran: Iran is the most stable country politically and economically bordering the Caspian, and offers the most attractive pipeline routes: it is important to understand congressional attitude towards that country. Congress is opposed to Iran and has limited the Clintons administrations flexibility in dealing with it. In this respect, Congress has played a significant role. In the opinion of Congress no country undermines American interest more than Iran. Since the Iranian revolution the United States has sought to isolate Iran diplomatically and politically and more recently economically. Congress has passed the Iran-Libya Sanction Act (ILSA). This act was passed without a single member of congress voting against the sanctions. Congress has rarely adopted any controversial piece of legislation unanimously which have a wide range of implications. This law is causing problem for the companies trying to move Caspian oil to market. US companies are prohibited from partnering with Iranian firms in the Caspian (CRS Report: 2003). US Policy towards Russia Another regional issue clouding Congress view of the region is US policy towards Russia. Congress is skeptical of Russia, and its relations with Iran. For many members of Congress opposing the Soviet Union was a major pillar in their political philosophy during 1980s. Today there are still resident effects of this cold war attitude especially Republican party. In 1997 dozens of bills were introduced seeking to impose sanctions on Russia. Congress has consistently opposed Russian efforts of nuclear cooperation with Iran. Congress views the possible pipeline alternative through Russia, southern route through Iran, eastern route through Afghanistan and western rout through Georgia and Today Congressional view of the pipeline can be summed up in three ways: congress is opposed to pipelines routes through Iran, Congress is skeptical of routes through Russia, and is dubious of routes through Afghanistan. Turkey and Georgia are the only options in view of the Congress. Therefore, it is obvious why Congress has expressed support for pipeline along an east-west axis. This also helps to explain why the US government (Congress and the administration) are increasingly calling the Baku Ceyhan route the preferred route because it belongs NATO, ally, and avoid Iran and Russia. During 1998, Congress continued to advocate isolation of Iran and continue the incremental progress in US relations with Azerbaijan. While formulating energy policy for the United States, Congress is the preeminent force. But congress is a house divided. Its authority is dispersed between the two chambers. It is due to the fact that its members are usually torn by the conflicting claims of local and national interest. In spite of having fragmented opportunity it can be expected for policy innovation. On the brighter side, the United States has important energy interests in Central Asia. With its recent energy resources, Kazakhstan could become one of the largest oil exporters in the world. The United States has a strong interest in this oil getting to the world market at reasonable prices via multiple pipelines (Congressional Hearings: 1998). The 107th Congress supported governments efforts to promote a new pipeline from Kazakhstan to Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Turkey, the gateway to the entire Western oil market. It was also acknowledged that in addition to energy interests, the United States also has a strong interest in working with the existing Central Asia governments on combating drugs and on divesting themselves of their weapons of mass destruction materials ( Congressional Hearings:2001). Finally, domestic security concerns for the Central Asian region particularly about violent political movements also got due consideration. The world gets nearly hal